1 The Museum of the History of Yugoslavia in Belgrade houses an exceptionally valuable and rich collection of photographs, with only one box, numbered 88, for example, containing 202 photographs recording events related to the activities of President Josip Broz Tito from 25 April to 22 May 1958, meaning that at least seven photographs document his every working day.

2 M. Ragon, En Yougoslavie l'art official est aussi l'art vivant, Arts No. 849, Paris , 27 December 1961 .

3 G.C. Argan, Architecture and Ideology, in Studije o modernoj umetnosti (Studies on Modern Art), Belgrade , 1982, 190. On specific relations between the work of art and ideology, Althusser, later, advanced far more radical theses, according to which, ”every practice is possible only through ideology and within it”, while ”every ideology is possible only through the subject and for the subjects,” R. Močnik, Althusser's Thesis, Prelom, CSUb, No.1, Belgrade 2001, 12.

4 B.Groys, The Total Art of Stalinism, Avant–Garde, Aesthetic Dictatorship and Beyond, Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1992, 35.

5 B. Groys, op.cit., 39.

6 The slogan ”the new realism” was espoused in this country in the 30's in the literature and art of the group Život (Life) and was advocated by the then leading critics: Milan Bogdanović, Velibor Gligorić and Djordje Jovanović. ”In the literature of the National Liberation Struggle, featured a somewhat toned down avant–garde component, which we detect in the poems of O. Davičo produced in the war and the first post–war years, then in the prisoner poems of M. Dedinac, in the war and post–war poems of D. Matić and A. Vučo”, J. Deretić, Kratka istorija srpske književnosti (A Short History of Serbian Literature), Belgrade, 1990, www.rastko.org.yu/knjizevnost/jderetic_knjiz

7 B. Groys, op.cit., 9.

8 B. Groys, op. cit., 8–9

9 G. Debord, Društvo spektakla (The Society of the Spectacle),

Arkzin, Zagreb 1999, 151.

10 Idem, 36.

11 Hannah Arendt, Izvori totalitarizma (The Origins of Totalitarianism), Belgrade , 1998, 24.

12 C. Greenberg, Avant–Garde and Kitsch, www.sharecom.ca/ greenberg/kitsch

14 L. Manovich, The Engineering of Vision from Constructivism to Computers,www.manovich.net/; P. Galvez, Portrait of the Artist as a Monkey–Hand, October, 93, Summer 2000, 109/137.

15 A. Deyneka, from the Letter of Soviet Artists and Scientists, Jugoslavija–SSSR (Yugoslavia– USSR), No.2, Belgrade, 1945, 35.

16 M. Todić, Nemoguće, umetnost nadrealizma (The Impossible, Surrealist Art), Museum of Applied Arts, Belgrade, 2002, 44.

17 R. Petrović, Nadrealistička misao (Surrealist Thought), Vreme, Belgrade, 19 April 1931 in: Ideje srpske umetničke kritike i teorije 1900–1950 (Ideas of Serbian Art Criticism and Theory 1900–1950), Museum of Contemporary Art, Belgrade, 1980,219.

18 On a Piece of Implicit Self–Criticism, NDIO, No.2, Belgrade 1932, 10.

19 Misunderstanding Dialectics, reply to critiques by Merin and Galogaža, NDIO, No.3, Belgrade, 1932, 3.

20 These photographs are part of the donation of Mrs. Jelena Jovanović to the Museum of Applied Arts in Belgrade.

21 R. Vučković, Serbian Avant–Garde Prose, Belgrade, 2000.

22 Nadrealizam danas i ovde, Nos. 2 and 3, s.p; Stožer, Nos. 10,11 and 12, Belgrade 1932, 296, 301,316.

23 Street Art of the Revolution, Festivals and Celebrations in Russia, 1918–33, ed.by V. Tolstoy, I. Bibikova, C. Cooke, London, 1990, 222.

24 The History of Decorating Gorky Park, Idem, 216.

25 M. Rowell, Constructivist Book Design: Shaping the Proletarian Conscience, in The Russian Avant–garde Book 1910–1934, The Museum of Modern Art, New York 2003, 55.

26 J. Popović, Fotomontaža kod nas (Photomontage in Our Country), Stožer, No.7–8, Belgrade 1932, 238/239. For more on photomontage in Serbian inter–war art, see M. Todić, Istorija srpske fotografije 1839–1940 (History of Serbian Photography 1839–1940), Belgrade 1993, 95–96.

27 N. N. Gurianova, A Game in Hell, Hard Work in Heaven: Deconstructing Canon in Russian Futurist Books, in Russian Futurist and Constructivist Books, exhibition catalogue, ed. by Deborah Whye. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2002, p.24–32.

28 Dj. Jovanović, Realizam kao umetnička istina (Realism as the Artistic Truth), in Studije i kritike (Studies and Critiques), Belgrade 1949, 5.

29 B. Groys, op. cit., 21. The behavior model of the avant–garde artist features an absence of political but also of aesthetic tolerance, so that some publicly accused those who thought differently, demanding from the new authorities to punish them, Idem, 23; the example of the Serbian surrealists can also be adduced to confirm the correctness of Aragon's well–known observation that ”the revolutionary intellectual features first and foremost as a traitor of the class from which he comes”, W. Benjamin, Pisac kao proizvođač (The Writer as a Producer), in Essays, Belgrade 1974, 113.

30 Lj. Dimić, Agitprop kultura, agitpropovska faza kulturne politike u Srbiji 1945–1952 (Agitprop Culture, the Agitprop Stage of Cultural Policy In Serbia 1945–1952), Belgrade 1988, 233: I. Hofman, Committee for Culture and Art of the FNRJ Government, Arhiv, No. 2, Belgrade 2001, 42–48. From 1945, close and intensive ties with Russia were the concern of the Yugoslavia–USSR Cultural Cooperation Society, which also issued a magazine of the same name until 1949, Lj. Dimić, op. cit., 165–171.

31 F. Hlupič, Umetnička fotografija danas (Artistic Photography Today), Fotografija , No. 3, Belgrade 1949, 38.

32 A. Gerasimov, Protiv formalizma – za visoku idejnu umetnost (Against Formalism – For High Ideological Art), Jugoslavija–SSSR, No. 27 Belgrade 1947, 13, 15.

33 Ч. Попов, Тоталитарното изкуство (The Totalitarian Experience), Sofia 2004, 212–215.

34 J. Imširović, Od Staljinizma do samoupravnog nacionalizma (From Stalinism to Self–Management Nationalism), Belgrade 1991, 14–15, 25.

35 The ”Agitation and Propaganda Commission” addressed a request to the Popular Engineering Society, which was also in charge of photography, ”to introduce more politicalism in its organizations. It should be realized that our task is not only to promote agitation for our Federation, but even more to serve agitation and propaganda of our social reality”, Fotografija, No.9–10, Belgrade 1949, 124.

36 Second Federal Exhibition of Artistic Photography of the Federation of Amateur Photographers and Film–Makers of Yugoslavia, Fotografija, No.1, Belgrade 1950, 19. The members of the jury were: Oto Bihalji–Merin, Branko Šotra, Miša Pavlović, Jara Ribnikar, Slavko Njagul, Fran Hlupič, Slaven Smodlaka, and awards were received by: Tošo Dabac, Slavko Smolej and Milan Pavić, Idem, 20.

37 Lj. Dimić, op. cit,, 195–197.

38 A.D., Posle V kongresa KPJ (After the Fifth Congress of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia), Fotografija, No. 2, Belgrade 1948, 17, Osnivanje Saveza fotoamatera Jugoslavije (Founding of the Federation of Amateur Photographers of Yugoslavia), 15 godina Narodne tehnike (15 Years of the Popular Engineering Society), Foto–kino revija (Photography and Cinema Review), No. 9, Belgrade 1961,9.

39 J. Popović, Idejnost daje krila talentu (Ideological Character Gives Wings to Talent), Umetnost (Art), No. 1, Belgrade 1949, 8. ”The aesthetics of socrealism is eclecticism only for those looking from the outside, because they only see a blend of heterogeneous styles, and ignore the high ideological qualities, such as ”ideological character” and ”popularity”, B. Groys, op.cit ., 49.

40 Lj. Dimić, op. cit., 213.

41 Lj. Dimić, op. cit., 177. ”We say that film is the most popular art in the Soviet Union ”, S. Eisenstein, Film, Jugoslavija –SSSR, No. 6, Belgrade 1946,14.

42 A. Vučo, Ljuskari na prsima (Crustaceans on the Chest), Nemoguće–L' Impossible, Belgrade 1930, 68–72; A. Vučo, Pioniri sovjetskog umetničkog filma (Pioneers of Soviet Artistic Film), Jugoslavija–SSSR, No. 6, Belgrade 1946; Milovan Đilas and Radovan Zogović, very influential communist theoreticians, stressed Surrealism, Cubism, Personalism, Existentialism and many other ”isms” as particularly dangerous streams for the forming of the socialist culture, adducing Sartre and Picasso as the principal representatives of the mystical and decadent, irrationalist and formalist bourgeois culture, Lj. Dimić, op. cit.,218–223.

43 J. Bosnar, O zadacima fotoamaterstva u našoj zemlji (On the Tasks of Amateur Photography in Our Country), Fotografija, No.1, Belgrade 1948, 1–2.

44 J.Ž. (Ž. Jeremić) Osnovan je Savez fotoamatera Jugoslavije (Federation of Amateur Photographers of Yugoslavia Founded), Fotografija No. 2, Belgrade 1949, 18.

45 A. D. Posle V kongresa KPJ (After the Fifth Congress of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia), Fotografija, No. 2, Belgrade 1948, 18.

46 E. Šinko, Buržoaski objektivizam i partijnost (Bourgeois Objectivism and Partisanship), Fotografija, No.5, Belgrade 1949, 65.

47 A.D. op. cit., 18. An approximate idea of the proportions of the organization of the Popular Engineering Society can be obtained from the dedication in the Album of Photographs that the members of the Belgrade Photographic Club presented to Josip Broz Tito on 1 May, 1961. It says: ”Dear comrade Tito, ... We are proud because over the past fifteen years we have successfully carried out our tasks in the field of technical education ... during that period over 840,000 citizens completed various technical courses. Today, over half a million of our active members assembled in over 3,500 clubs and societies, together with all the other working people of our country, are struggling to implement the new five–year plan of economic and social development....,” The Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Album 567.

48 ”We have learned that the Amateur Photographers Society of Zagreb (or Croatia ) is planning to organize an exhibition of art photography abroad, without approval from the Committee. Please intervene and again warn both the Amateur Photographers Society and other interested parties that without approval from the Culture and Art Committee they may not maintain cultural and artistic ties with foreign countries. In particular, no exhibitions and similar may be sent abroad without endorsement and approval. This specific instance is all the graver as, according to the information we have received, at that exhibition our country would be represented by pseudo–artistic photographs, in no way characteristic of the times we live in, and, mainly, unrelated to current developments in our country. In any case, we ask you to investigate this entire matter and take the necessary action. DEATH TO FASCISM – FREEDOM TO THE PEOPLE!” The letter was signed by the secretary of the Culture and Art Committee, Vlado Madjarić and a member of the Committee, Meša Selimović, Belgrade 9 August 1946, Archives of Yugoslavia, Stock No. 314, binder 22. A 1946 letter of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of Serbia, addressed to the District People's Committee says: ”With a view to registering and planning cultural and artistic ties with foreign countries, the Culture Committee has asked you repeatedly that neither you nor your branch institutions communicate with foreign countries on your own but through the Committee or with the knowledge and approval of the CommitteeÉ It so happened that an artist went on a guest tour abroad without the Committee having been informed. Such anarchy is harmful both to the creation and implementation of a unified plan, and the reputation of our country, because it leaves an impression of disorganization. May we ask you to draw the attention of all branch institutions to all this once again, and also to send to this Committee the text by which you conveyed this directive to the institutions, as well as a list of the institutions to which you will be sending this circular.”. Archives of Yugoslavia , Belgrade , Stock No. 314, binder 22. The Culture and Art Committee organized, in cooperation with the US Aid Committee for Yugoslavia, that same year, 1946, recordings of Yugoslav folk songs. It chose sixteen compositions, popular marching songs, original compositions from the time of the National Liberation Struggle, Idem..

49 A. Flaker, Sovjetski masovni Gesamtkunstwerk (The Soviet Mass Gesamtkunstwerk), Lica, No.7, Sarajevo 1989, 10.

50 As part of the final ceremony at the Yugoslav People's Army Stadium in Belgrade, the first youth relay baton was delivered ”to comrade Tito by the president of the Central Committee of the People's Youth of Yugoslavia, Mika Tripalo”, Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Stock V–7a: k. 1958.

51 E. Štajhen, Važno je ono što umetnik oseća (What the Artist Feels is What Matters), Foto–kino revija No. 1, Belgrade, 1958, 6–7. When in 1963, an exhibition of Yugoslav photography was staged in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev and some other cities, reviewers were disappointed and confused because they had expected ”to see at the exhibition, primarily, recordings that would reflect in visual photographic language the bustling life of the Yugoslav peoples ...,” The Yugoslav comrades have delighted us with their art, ”Sovjetskoe foto” on the staging of the Yugoslav exhibition in the USSR, Foto–kino revija No. 10, Belgrade, 1964, 13.

52 I. Bibikova, The Design of Revolutionary Celebrations, in Street Art of the Revolution, Festivals and Celebrations in Russia 1918–33, 17–29.

53 This was written at the end of a photographic album presented to president Tito on 1 May 1961: ”The photographs were made and the album compiled by members of the Federation of Photographic Clubs of Yugoslavia, the Photographic Club of Belgrade, from the beginning of the parade to 10.30 a.m.”, Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Album No. 567. The same parade, but from an atypical aspect, was also filmed by Dušan Makavejev, a member of the Cinema Club of Belgrade, which elicited harsh criticism of the centralized Party network in culture.

54 List of enterprises, institutions, organizations and individuals to which photographs were sent (...) 25 May, 1954, Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Stock V–7– a; k. 1954–1956.

55 M. Macarol, Karakter i istoriska uloga naše žurnalističke fotografije (The Character and Historic Role of Our Journalistic Photography), Fotografija No. 7, Belgrade 1950, 91. The motto of this chapter was taken over from the text ”Majakovski o fotografskoj umetnosti” (Mayakovsky On Photographic Art), Foto–kino revija No. 11, Belgrade , 1963, 4.

56 G. Debord, op.cit., 40.

57 M. Macarol, Karakter i istoriska uloga naše žurnalističke fotografije , 91.

58 ”Our army has been charged with the noble task of standing vigil over the peaceful creative work of town and village workers” said Koča Popović, Chief of General Staff, in Veličanstvena parada jedinica Jugoslovenske narodne armije pred maršalom Titom (Magnificent Parade of Yugoslav People's Army Units Before Marshall Tito), Borba, 10 May, 1947.

59 Ч. Попов, Тоталитарното изкуство (The Totalitarian Experience), 131, 265–266.

60 The ”Proposal for Organizing 1 st of May Celebrations” in Moscow in 1920, given by A. M. Gan envisaged that squares would be given art and science names, so that, for example, the Geographic Square was decorated with a large globe, in Street Art of the Revolution, 125.

	Жорж Скригин, Рут Парнел и Вера Костић, 1950. Žorž Skrigin, Ruth Parnell and Vera Kostić, 1950

61 I. Hofman, Committee for Culture and Art of the FNRJ Government, Arhiv, No. 2, Belgrade 2001, 42–48. Positive character references would be mainly written in this way: Katarina Obradović, a member of the Corps de Ballet, was a member of the Corps de Ballet of the National Theater in Belgrade during the occupation. For the duration of the occupation, she was indifferent to the National Liberation Movement. After the liberation, she took an active part in the work of mass organizations and was elected to and is in the leaderships of professional and mass organizations. She fully adheres to the course of the front and is one of the youth leaders in the National Theater. She is very conscientious and disciplined in her work. She is performing the duty of member of the Corps de Ballet of the National Theater. She is studying at the Musical Academy – Ballet Stream and at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Belgrade. Oskar Danon, director of the Opera of the National Theater in Belgrade, (1947), Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Stock 314, binder No.1.

62 A.V. Lunacharsky, Lenjin i izobraziteljnoe iskusstvo, in: V. Tolstoy, Art Born of the October Revolution, in Street Art of the Revolution, 13; N. P. Izvenkov,1925, 1st of May, in Street Art of the Revolution, 161.

63 Some 200,000 workers took part in the march–past in Belgrade, Borba, 3 May 1947.

64 Anne McClintock, Soft–soaping empire: commodity racism and imperial advertising, in The Visual Culture Reader (ed. Nicholas Mirzoeff ), Routledge, London & New York, 2001, 3004– 316.

65 P. Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization 1917– 1929, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1985, 7.

66 M. Ilić, Filmografija jugoslovenskog filma 1945–1965 (Filmography of Yugoslav Film 1945–1965), Film Institute, Vol. 1, Belgrade 1970.

67 G. Debord, op.cit., 39.

68 O. Bihalji–Merin, In connection with Boža Ilić's picture, Trial Boring in New Belgrade, Borba, 9 January 1949, 6, in: L. Merenik, Ideološki modeli: srpsko slikarstvo 1945–1968 (Ideological Models: Serbian Painting 1945–1968), Belgrade 2001, 32.

69 S. M. Eisenstein, Montaža atrakcija (The Montage of Attractions), Belgrade, 1964, 82. ”The influence of Soviet film can be realized only if we know how massive an audience it drew. Present on the repertoires of our cinemas most often and the longest, distributed by the state to cinema halls and theaters in even the most remote areas, advertised and praised, with organized visits, it filled cinema halls. In certain years (1947, for instance) the number of viewers was ten times that of domestic films,” Lj. Dimić, Agitprop kultura, 179.

70 L. Dickerman, Camera Obscura: Socialist Realism in the Shadow of Photography, in October 93, Summer 2000, 152.

71 Idem.

72 According to Party directives staged events used excerpts from Soviet literature or from works from the period of the National Liberation Struggle and the program was as follows: 1. the national anthem, 2. recitations, 3. singing or music, 4. a theatrical performance, while everything
not conducive to education was to be left out, Lj. Dimić, Agitprop kultura, 138.

73 ”Objectivism is anti–dialectical, it divorces social reality from man, divorces the object from the subject, instead of showing how unbreakably linked they are, wrote, among other, E. Šinko in ”Bourgeois Objectivism and Partisanship”, Fotografija, No. 5, Belgrade 1949, 65.

74 ”In the photographs of our photo journalists visiting farming cooperatives we most often see the motif of plowing with a tractor, as if that were the only or even most characteristic feature of a socialist work cooperative in our country. The tractor in itself means nothing. It is actually the product of capitalism and it can be found on every capitalist farm. So, there is nothing socialist there (...) if from the life of a work cooperative we show the newly–built facilities, life in them, in libraries, popular libraries and reading rooms, if we show the system of labor, folk ensembles, choirs, manifestations and different meetings – then no one will think that these are photographs
from a capitalist farm, where none of that exists, because he will sense that it is a new life going on in our village, life closely linked to the life of all of us, workers of our new socialist community, ” M. Macarol, op.cit., Fotografija, No.7, Belgrade 1950, 92.

75 The Main Staff of youth work brigades constructing the youth railroad Šamac–Sarajevo sent a report to the Committee for Culture and Art of the Government of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia on the work of painters and sculptors who were at the site from 1 April to 20 May 1947. The group of eleven artists included Danica Antić from Belgrade, who was in charge of the
visual arts chapter of the 8th Section, and Miroslav Lebez from Ljubljana ”managed to organize the work of a visual arts chapter, which comprised 30 young people. Some of their works have already been published in the press”. For Vladimir Novosel from Herceg–Novi it is said that, since he is over 70 and ”has difficulty moving, he uses a still camera in his work”, while Vladimir Pintarić from Zagreb ”did not have a good attitude towards other painters”. In the conclusion it is written: ”Their entire stay showed that they did not correctly understand their visit to the railroad and did not use all their free time and potentials for creative work”, Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Stock No. 314, f.I. At the Šamac–Sarajevo drive, each of the 10 sections along the enormous construction site had a handball coach. Pavle Mijović, the press advisor in the Yugoslav embassy in Moscow sent an extensive report to the Information Department of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in 1947, on the discussions about the book Symposium of Workers in Soviet Music which represents ”a new contribution to the Marxist–Leninist theory of art and aesthetics”. The report also states that ”this solution of the Central Committee of the Party is also of enormous interest to our artists”, for ”ideological purity is demanded of an artist in his work”, Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Stock No. 314, f.III.

76 M. Pijade in: J. Imširović, op.cit., 24.

77 In the dedication to comrade Tito we can also read: ”The Šamac–Sarajevo youth railroad is 242 kilometers long. Earthworks in the total amount of 5,520,000 cubic meters were carried out at the line, different facilities and 17 large bridges of a total length of 2,478 m, the longest one being Vranduk (1534 m), were built”. It goes on to stress the educational aspects of this grandiose undertaking: ”13,593 political–educational, popular scientific and specialized lectures were held in the brigades, 41 films shown with a total of 1,579 performances, visited by 774,938 builders and there were 1001 theatrical performances. There were 1,407 illiteracy courses for 19,073 people, of whom 87% learned to read and write. 15,101 builders attended 166 technical and specialized courses. The bulletin ”Struggle at the Youth Railroad” was published at the Railroad, in 24,500 copies. The ”Youth Railroad” Radio Station had 756 hours of spoken programs and 1,509 hours of music. The Šamac–Sarajevo Youth Railroad Line was built from 1 April to 15 November 1947, and finished 13 days ahead of schedule”, Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Photo Album No. 371.

78 B. Groys, op.cit., 52. 53.

79 The program of the celebration of the birthday of Josip Broz Tito, ”comrade President”, envisaged the following: 1) on 25 May 1955 at 5 p.m., delivery of the baton to comrade President, reception for the guests, a performance at the White Palace; 2) on 28 May of the same year at 10 a.m., reception for pioneers and people's youth at the White Palace; 3) 30 May of the same year, at 10 a.m. reception for work collectives and mass organizations at the White Palace. ”The solemn event of the reception of Tito's baton shall begin at the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) Stadium at -   3.30 p.m. and last until 7 p.m., because the envisaged cultural and artistic program will be accompanied by a broadcast of the delivery of the baton at the White Palace. The baton is expected to arrive at the JNA stadium between -   4.10 and 4.30 p.m. From there, 8 baton bearers (6 from the republics, the JNA and border guards) will set out towards the White Palace where it will arrive at 5 p.m. sharp. The period from 5 to 5.20 p.m. is envisaged for the presentation of the baton to comrade President and short greeting addresses. After the presentation of the baton, there will be a reception for the guests until 6.15 p.m. At 6.15 p.m. members of the ”Partizan” will stage a performance lasting for about 40 minutes. It has about 120 participants and the program envisages 10 numbers” (...) Notes, Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade , Stock V–7–a;k. 1954–1956. The first celebration of Youth Day lasted 8 days, from 17–25 May 1958, and began with the ”traditional students night race” and ended with the solemn reception of the ”Youth Baton” at the JNA stadium, fireworks at Belgrade Fair and ”a big party for young people in all the halls of the Belgrade Fair grounds. The program of the ”big party” comprised a film, popular and dance music, a circus, recitals by ensembles from the capitals of our republics and eminent Belgrade artists”. The program of the celebration of Youth Day in Belgrade. Museum of the History of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Stock V–7–a, k.1958. ”About 30,000 young people will be invited to the big party of youth in all the halls of Belgrade's Fair on 25 May 1958 in the evening ... The Federal Committee for organizing the celebration of Youth Day invites comrade President and comrade Jovanka Broz to this party as well”, Notes, Idem.

80 R. Barthes, Image–Music–Text (Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath) Fontana Press, London 1977, 69–78.

81 P. J. Marković, Beograd između istoka i zapada 1948–1965 (Belgrade Between East and West 1948–1965), Belgrade 1996, 419.

82 Roland Barthes, Image–Music–Text (Eddeys selected and translated by Stephen Heath) Fontana Press, London 1977, 69–78.

83 S. M. Eisenstein, The Montage of Attractions, 33.

84 P. Roubal, Bodies in formation, Mass gymnastics under communism, Budapest, 2001, www.osa.ceu.hu/galeria

85 R. Barthes, Image–Music–Text (Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath) Fontana Press, London 1977, 69–78.

86 A.D., After the 5 th Congress of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, Fotografija, No. 2, Belgrade 1948, 17.

87 On the genesis of the hero myth in totalitarianism see Ч. Попов, Тоталитарното изкуство, 190–230.

88 Alexey Stakhanov, a miner in Dombas in agreement with the local Party leadership, dug 102 tons of coal in one day in 1935, which exceeded the usual norm by 14 times. The Yugoslav press wrote that a contest had been organized between the workers of the Breza mine and the best brigades of the Kreka and ”Tito” mines, and ”the best work output results were achieved by the brigade of the well– known shock worker Alija Sirotanović, which surpassed the norm by 219%”, Borba, 27 June 1949; Alija Sirotanović who regularly exceeded the quota ”surpassed Stakhanov's first record by 40 tons”, Borba, 29 July 1949. Later, the mass media took over the duty of articulating the hero of labor myth and its original structure was somewhat modified. Thirty years later we could read that ”Alija's brigade exceeded the record held so far by the brigade of the Soviet miner, by 50 tons ... To date this record has not been broken, nor, truth to tell, has anyone tried to surpass it”, S. Zvizdić, Alija Sirotanović, Vjesnik, 24 March 1979. Showing that life imitates art, some miners but not Alija Sirotanović, appeared as actors in Bata Čengić's 1973 film Pictures from the Life of Shock Workers.

89 Х. Гюнтер, Железня гармония, Вопроы литературы, Moscow 1992, No. 1, 27–41

90 The picture of the miner first appears on the most valuable banknote, 1000 dinars, and in later issues it also appeared on 10–dinar bills, V. Tomić, S. Cvijan, Yugoslav Banknotes 1918–1997, Belgrade 1997, 79–104.

91 ”The picture of Alija Sirotanović from Breza was never on banknotes. That was the hapless Arif Heralić from Zenica whose picture was taken by N. Bibić, a ”Borba” news photographer , in 1954 and from the papers he came to feature on a banknote”, B. P. Arif is not Alija, Borba, 18 May 1999; http://www.leksikon–yu –mitologije.net/read.php?id=674.

92 ”Shock work principles were implemented in all areas, including science (...) The other type of hero on the front of the struggle for the plan were innovators and production streamliners (...) Negative examples are saboteurs, religious fanatics, kulaks, the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia”. P. J. Marković, op.cit., 195,197.

93 O. Kreačić, Tito, maršal Jugoslavije (Tito, Marshall of Yugoslavia), Jugoslavija, No. 9, Belgrade 1954, 10.

94 L. Marin, The Body–of–Power and Incarnation at Port Royal and in Pascal, or Of the Figurability of the Political Absolute, in B. Pejić, Lady Rosa of Luxemburg, or is the age of female allegory really bygone?, Život umjetnosti, No. 70, Zagreb 2003, 37, note 14.

95 B. Groys, op.cit., 29.

97 ”Photography is a system of reproduction the purpose of which is to ”capture” actual events and elements of reality. Those reproductions, or photo–reflections, can be combined in different ways. Both the pictures and the manner of their combining allow for any degree of deformation– either as a technical inevitability or a deliberately calculated effect. Results range from faithful naturalistic combinations of mutually linked visual experiences to extreme deformation, to dispositions not envisaged by nature, and even to abstract formalism with remnants of reality”, S. M. Eisenstein, op.cit. 32–33.

98 R. Roud, Jean–Luc Godard, in: A. Chase, Avant–Garde, Kitsch and Law, Nova Law Review, Vol. 14, No. 2–3, 1990, 568.

99 R. Barthes, Mit danas (Myth Today), in Književnost, mitologija, semiologija (Literature, Mythology, Semeiology), Belgrade 179, 271.

100 N. Tarabukin, The Art of the Day, October, No. 93, Summer 2000, 76.

101 ”Imagine a photograph of a gigantic hydro–electric power plant. The news photographer gave his shot full force by showing the final works on the big dam, covered by the low–angle lens which observes all the grandiosity of the new successes of human labor (...) But if we were to put the following caption under that same photograph: Our sixth new hydro–power plant, then the effect would increase at least sixfold in the eyes of the viewer,” M. Macarol, The Character and Historic Role of Our Journalistic Photography, 93. ”What we need to look for in a photographer is the ability to accompany his photo with a caption that rids it of faddish platitudes and imbues it with revolutionary usability. But we shall make this request most explicitly at the moment when we, writers, start taking photographs”, W. Benjamin, The Writer as a Producer, 106.

102 Jugoslavija, No. 8, Belgrade 1953.

103 M. Rowell, op. cit., 57.

104 В. Костин, Молодые советские живописцы, Moscow1935, 46, in Ч. Попов, Тоталитарното изкуство, 344.

105 ”The years of restoration gave us the first women shock– workers, (...) inventors, innovators, who proved with their inventions that they consider the factory their very own,” V. Tomšić, The Women of Yugoslavia in the Restoration and Building of Their Country, Jugoslavija –SSSR, No. 17, Belgrade 1947, 2.

106 L. Nochlin, Women, Art and Power and Other Essays, NY: Harper & Row, 1988, ”The Feminist Critique of Art History”; T. Gouma–Peterson and P. Mathews, Art Bulletin 69/3 (1987): 326–57.

107 S. Sontag, Fascinating Fascism, www.anti–rev.org

108 P. Roubal, Bodies in Formation, Mass Gymnastics Under Communism, www.osa.ceu.hu/galeria; ”There are pictures”, writes M. Kujundžić in 1950, ”in which (...) instead of the workers, practically the symbol of labor is shown”. M. Kujundžić, Several Notes Accompanying an Exhibition of Art Photographs, Fotografija, Nos. 2–3, Belgrade 1950, 34.

109 R. Boer, Althusser, Myth & Genesis 1–3, Journal of Philosophy and Scripture, Vol. 1, No. 2, Spring 2004, 6. www.philoso-phyandscripture.org/RolandBoer.pdf

115 B. Groys, op.cit., 55.

116 E. Šinko, op.cit., 65. The Statute of the Federation of Amateur Photographers and Film–Makers of Yugoslavia requires of its members to work on implementing the program of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, to fight against the revision of Marxism–Leninism and to take part in the socialist construction of their country, Fotografija, Nos. 2–3, Belgrade 1950, 35.

117 I. Bibikova, The Design of Revolutionary Celebrations, in Street Art of the Revolution, 24. 124. ”Any democracy strives naturally towards popular festivals (...) Democracy presupposes the free life of the masses. In order for the masses to make themselves felt, they must outwardly manifest themselves, and this is possible only when, to use Robespierre's phrase, they are their own spectacle. If organized masses march to music, sing in unison or perform some extensive gymnastic manoeuvres or dances, in other words organize a kind of parade, then those other, unorganized masses clustering round on all sides of the streets and squares where the festival takes place, will merge with the organized masses, and thus, one can say: the whole people manifests its soul to itself. (...) ”A.V. Lunacharsky, On popular festivals, Theater Courier, No. 62, Moscow 1920, 13, in Street Art of the Revolution, 124.

118 ”One of the greatest achievements of Stalinism and one of the conditions which prepared its destruction was the ”cultural revolution” (...) in the new society the most accessible was that which was least accessible in the past – education and culture. It turned out that it was much easier to give people a good education and bring them close to the highest cultural spheres than to give them decent flats, clothes, food. Education and culture were the strongest compensation for the poverty of everyday life,” A. Zinovjev, The Enthusiasm of Our Youth, Belgrade 1985, 40. ”A washer would emancipate my mom more than the right to vote”, says the heroine in Želimir Žilnik's film Early Works in 1969.

119 M. Macarol, Karakter i istoriska uloga naše žurnalističke fotografije (The Character and Historic Role of Our Journalistic Photograph), 91.

120 J. Berger, Understanding a Photograph, in Selected Essays, London 2001, 215–218.

121 Anonymous, Finally, we talked about – photography..., Foto–kino revija, Nos. 7–8, Belgrade 1961, 16.

122 B. Groys, The Total Art of Stalinism, 25. Surrealism ”contributed to the degradation of the renown of the Author by constantly recommending sudden disappointment in expecting the meaning, entrusting the hand with writing as fast as it can of what the head is still not aware and by accepting the principle and experience that a number of people should write together”, R. Barthes, Smrt autora (The Death of the Author), Polja, No. 309, Novi Sad 1984, 450.

123 The Nobel Prize laureate, Ivo Andrić, as the president of the Federation of Writers of Yugoslavia and the author of the revolutionary Ex Ponto, believed that the Party directive on emulating Soviet culture was quite justified and that ”our writers and our artists (...) will be good painters and faithful interpreters of our living and social reality”, but could not accept the demand of the Party that the popular practice of competing and setting labor records should become obligatory for writers as well, Lj. Dimić, op.cit., 212.

124 R. Guzina, The First One–Man Show, Fotografija, No. 4. Belgrade 1952, 4–5. Tošo Dabac's One–Man Show in Zagreb , Idem, 1953. The abandoning of socialist realism and a return to the positions of free individual creativity in painting is associated with Petar Lubarda's exhibition (1951), and in literature with Miroslav Krleža's paper ”O slobodi kulture ” (On the Freedom of Culture) read at the Congress of the Federation of Writers of Yugoslavia in 1952.

125 J. Imširović, op.cit., 122.

127 Josip Bosnar, photographer and long–standing president of the Federation of Amateur Photographers and Film–Makers of Yugoslavia pointed out that ”photography and film were strong social factors exerting a powerful influence”, Foto– kino revija, No. 1, Belgrade 1959, 3. Photography is seen as a medium of mass visual communication and in that respect emphasis is laid on the difference in the number of visitors of exhibitions: ”A total number of 1,112 works by 219 photographers from 33 organizations arrived in Senta – the town has a little over 25,000 inhabitants, and over 17,000 people saw the exhibition”, N. Živković, Naše i slikarske izložbe (Our and Painting Exhibitions), Idem, No. 4, 18. For more details on hierarchic systems in totalitarianism see Ч. Попов, Тоталитарното изкуство, 242–250, 359–360; Lj. Kolešnik, Hrvatska spomenička skulptura u kontekstu europskog modernizma druge polovice 20. stoljeća: primjer   V. Bakića (Croatian Monumental Sculpture in the Context of the European Modernism of the Second Half of the 20 th Century: the example of V. Bakić), www.hart.hr/pdf

128 W. Benjamin, The Writer as a Producer, 109.